Hamlet Act 1, Scene 1 — A Level Complete Guide
📜 A Level English Literature · Shakespeare

Hamlet Act 1, Scene 1
The Complete Guide

Master how Shakespeare constructs epistemological uncertainty from the play’s first moments — and learn to write about the Ghost, the watch, and the rhetoric of night with the precision and critical confidence that distinguishes A-grade analysis.

📖 11 Modules 🎯 A Level ✅ AQA · Edexcel · OCR ✍️ Mini-Essay Model Included
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Central Argument: Act 1, Scene 1 establishes that the play’s fundamental crisis is not political or psychological but epistemological — the Ghost’s appearance renders all knowledge of the past, of obligation, and of what the dead might demand radically and irreparably uncertain. This uncertainty is not resolved as the play proceeds; it is the condition the rest of the play cannot escape.
📚 Course Contents — 11 Modules
01Context & Critical Framework 02What Happens in the Scene 03The Absent Prince 04The Ghost as Dramatic Problem 05Dramatic Structure & Stagecraft 06Language, Imagery & the Rhetoric of Night 07Themes in the Scene 08Critical Perspectives 09Genre, Form & Intertexts 10Links Across the Play & Beyond 11Writing a Top-Grade Response
01
Module One
Context & Critical Framework
The theatrical, historical, and critical landscape into which Act 1, Scene 1 arrives.
THEATRICAL CONTEXT AO3

The Globe, the Night, and the Audience’s Imagination

Hamlet was written around 1600–01 and first performed at the Globe Theatre — an open-air amphitheatre in Southwark where performances took place in full daylight. This is an important contextual fact for Act 1, Scene 1, because the scene’s insistence on darkness is entirely verbal. There is no stage darkness. The cold, the midnight watch, the terror of the battlements — all of it is constructed through language alone. When Barnardo asks “Who’s there?” in the play’s opening words, Shakespeare is simultaneously establishing the dramatic situation and demonstrating the theatre’s fundamental epistemological challenge: in a world of full daylight, you must believe in the dark.

This matters for A Level analysis because it means the language of the scene is not decorative but functional. Every image of cold, every invocation of night, every reference to things unseen is doing the perceptual work that a modern lighting designer would handle mechanically. Shakespeare trusts his language — and his audience — entirely.

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Elizabethan Beliefs About Ghosts
The theological status of ghosts was deeply contested in Reformation England. Catholic doctrine held that souls could return from Purgatory to seek prayers or justice; Protestant theology denied Purgatory’s existence altogether, suggesting that apparent ghosts were either demonic deceptions or hallucinations. An Elizabethan audience would have brought this lived uncertainty to the scene — the Ghost is not a theatrical convention but a genuine theological problem.
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Political Anxiety in 1600
England in 1600–01 was a kingdom in succession anxiety. Elizabeth I was ageing, childless, and refused to name an heir. The play’s opening — a tense, militarised watch, the spectre of a dead king, uncertainty about legitimate authority — would have resonated with an audience acutely conscious of what it meant to live through a political interregnum. Horatio’s comparison to pre-Caesarian Rome makes the political subtext explicit.
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The Revenge Tragedy Tradition
Audiences in 1601 arrived at the Globe with generic expectations shaped by the revenge tragedy tradition — most directly Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy (c.1587). They would expect a ghost, a demand for revenge, and an arc of delay culminating in catastrophic violence. Act 1, Scene 1 both invokes and immediately complicates that expectation: this Ghost does not speak its demand here. The withholding is deliberate and significant.
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The Midnight Watch
The watch — soldiers guarding the castle at night — implies a state of military alertness. Denmark has recently defeated Norway, and the fortifications are actively manned. This is not a kingdom at peace. The choice to begin the play at a watch-post rather than in the court immediately signals that the political world of Elsinore exists under threat — from without and, as we will discover, from within.
CRITICAL FRAMEWORK AO5

How Critics Have Approached This Scene

For much of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, criticism of Hamlet was dominated by character-based approaches — most influentially A.C. Bradley’s Shakespearean Tragedy (1904). Bradley’s method tends to treat Act 1, Scene 1 as dramatic preamble: the scene’s function is to establish atmosphere and introduce the Ghost before the “real” psychological drama begins with Hamlet’s appearance. This reading underestimates the scene significantly.

More productive are approaches that take the scene’s epistemological crisis seriously in its own right. Stephen Greenblatt’s Hamlet in Purgatory (2001) is essential here: Greenblatt argues that the Ghost embodies the Reformation’s destruction of a coherent set of rituals for dealing with the dead, and that the play’s anguish is partly theological. The scene’s opening question — “Who’s there?” — is, for Greenblatt, the play’s central question in miniature: how do you identify, classify, and respond to an entity that crosses the boundary between the living and the dead?

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AO3 & AO5 — Using Context Productively: The strongest A Level answers do not simply list contextual facts. They use context to generate analytical insight. Ask: how does the Reformation theological controversy change what I think about a specific line or dramatic choice? Context earns marks when it opens up the text — not when it decorates it.
🎯 Module 01 — Exam Prompt
“The Ghost in Hamlet is less a character than a theological crisis.” How far do you agree with this view of the Ghost’s dramatic function in Act 1?
This is an AO5-led question that rewards bringing critical frameworks to bear early. A distinguished answer would use Greenblatt’s work on Purgatory to support the “theological crisis” reading, then complicate it by considering the Ghost’s dramatic and psychological functions — it is simultaneously a theological problem, a theatrical convention, and a trigger for action.
02
Module Two
What Happens in the Scene
A structured account of the scene’s dramatic action, moment by moment.
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A Level Caution: At A Level, plot summary is necessary but not sufficient. This module provides the scaffold; every module that follows shows you how to transform these events into analytical argument. Do not reproduce this narrative in your essays — use it to orientate your close reading.
Lines 1–19
“Who’s there?” — The Opening Challenge
The scene begins in darkness and confusion. Barnardo relieves Francisco at his post on the battlements of Elsinore. The reversed challenge — the arriving guard challenging the stationed one, rather than vice versa — immediately signals a world where normal order is inverted. Francisco complains of being “sick at heart.” It is bitterly cold. Horatio and Marcellus arrive to join Barnardo.
Lines 20–57
The Ghost Appears — First Visit
Horatio, a scholar and Hamlet’s friend, has been brought to the watch as a learned witness. He is initially sceptical (“Tush, tush, ’twill not appear”). The Ghost enters and silently crosses the stage. Horatio is struck with “fear and wonder.” The soldiers urge him to speak to it — spirits must be addressed by the living to reveal their purpose. Horatio challenges it, but the Ghost departs without speaking.
Lines 58–125
Discussion — The Political and Theological Stakes
The Ghost’s resemblance to the dead King Hamlet is established. Horatio provides exposition: Denmark has been preparing for war against young Fortinbras of Norway, who seeks to reclaim lands his father lost to old Hamlet. Horatio draws an extended parallel with the omens that preceded Julius Caesar’s death — linking Denmark’s crisis to the great tradition of political catastrophe.
Lines 126–158
The Ghost Appears — Second Visit
The Ghost appears again. Horatio attempts to speak to it and detain it, demanding it reveal whether it comes for good or ill, whether it knows Denmark’s fate, whether it has buried treasure to disclose. Before it can speak, a cock crows — the traditional signal for spirits to return to their realm — and the Ghost departs. Marcellus attempts to strike at it with his partisan, but this proves futile.
Lines 159–180
Dawn — Resolution to Find Hamlet
As dawn breaks, Marcellus and Horatio discuss the cock’s crow and its protective function — a passage with a notable shift towards something quieter and almost liturgical. They agree they must tell young Hamlet what they have seen. The scene ends not with revelation but with the decision to bring a different kind of witness: not a scholar, but a son.
🎯 Module 02 — Exam Prompt
How does Shakespeare use the structure of Act 1, Scene 1 to create dramatic tension and prepare the audience for the play that follows?
Prioritise AO1 and AO2. A strong answer would note the double appearance of the Ghost (both appearances end in departure without speech), the movement from night to dawn, and the structural decision to end with a resolve to find Hamlet. The scene’s structure mirrors the play’s central problem: revelation is perpetually deferred.
03
Module Three
The Absent Prince — Hamlet Before He Appears
How Shakespeare constructs Hamlet’s identity and dramatic weight through his conspicuous absence from Act 1, Scene 1.
DRAMATIC CONSTRUCTION AO1 AO2

The Technique of Anticipatory Characterisation

Hamlet does not appear in Act 1, Scene 1. This is an extraordinary choice: the play named for its protagonist opens without him, and keeps him offstage for the entirety of its first scene. The effect is to construct Hamlet as a kind of absence that demands to be filled — the scene ends with the decision to seek him out, which means that the audience’s first conscious orientation towards Hamlet is one of desire rather than observation. We want to see him before we have seen him.

Shakespeare uses the other characters’ relationship to Hamlet to build his presence in the audience’s imagination. Horatio is identified as Hamlet’s close companion; his presence at the watch establishes that whatever Hamlet means, it involves intellectually serious men prepared to take strange things seriously. The Ghost itself is described in terms that directly invoke Hamlet’s father — but the Ghost’s uncanny resemblance to the dead father also, by implication, asks us to imagine the living son.

1
Hamlet Is Named as Destination
The scene’s final lines resolve on a journey to find Hamlet: “Let us impart what we have seen tonight / Unto young Hamlet.” This syntactic positioning — “young Hamlet” as the destination of the scene’s action — establishes him as the play’s gravitational centre before he appears. The adjective “young” does significant work: it distinguishes him from his dead father, introduces the generation question, and carries a faint note of concern, as if “young Hamlet” might not be fully equipped for what is coming.
2
The Ghost’s Silence Defers to Hamlet
The Ghost refuses to speak to Horatio, a scholar. Horatio attempts three separate appeals — questions about Denmark’s fate, about buried treasure, about the Ghost’s own wellbeing — and none of them break the silence. The implication, which becomes explicit in Scene 4 and 5, is that the Ghost’s message is for Hamlet alone. The scene therefore constructs Hamlet as the only legitimate auditor of the play’s central secret. His absence in Scene 1 is the formal reason the secret cannot yet be revealed.
3
Horatio as Hamlet’s Proxy
Horatio’s role in Scene 1 is partly to stand in for Hamlet intellectually. His scepticism — “Tush, tush, ’twill not appear” — mirrors the rational, philosophically trained mind we will come to associate with Hamlet. His subsequent conviction, once the Ghost appears, prefigures Hamlet’s own oscillation between sceptical reason and unavoidable confrontation with the inexplicable. Watching Horatio’s response is, in a sense, watching a preview of Hamlet’s.
4
Father and Son — The Double Image
The repeated description of the Ghost — “In the same figure like the King that’s dead” — creates a doubled image: the dead father and the living son who will encounter him. Horatio’s phrasing “the King that was” gestures towards a past that the whole play will struggle to recover, interpret, and act upon. Hamlet is implicitly invoked every time his father is described, because the son is the father’s continuation — and, in the revenge tragedy tradition, his instrument of justice.
PERFORMANCE CRITICISM — ROSENBERG & SHAPIRO
Performance critics such as Marvin Rosenberg and James Shapiro have noted that keeping Hamlet offstage in Scene 1 creates a powerful horizon of expectation. Every production must manage the moment when Hamlet finally appears in Scene 2 — the audience has been primed to receive him with particular attention. The scene’s staging thus shapes the entire production’s interpretation of who Hamlet is.
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Key Analytical Point: Hamlet’s absence from Scene 1 is not a neutral fact but a structural argument. It positions him as the solution to a problem he has not yet been told about — which is, in miniature, the situation he will inhabit for the rest of the play. He is always being asked to respond to knowledge he does not yet fully possess.
🎯 Module 03 — Exam Prompt
How does Shakespeare use Act 1, Scene 1 to shape the audience’s expectations of Hamlet before he appears?
Focus on AO1 and AO2 — the argument here is about dramatic technique rather than character psychology. A distinguished answer would discuss the Ghost’s silence, Horatio’s proxy role, the scene’s closing resolution, and the significance of the phrase “young Hamlet,” showing how each contributes to the construction of Hamlet as a figure of absent but already urgent significance.
04
Module Four
The Ghost as Dramatic Problem
Why the Ghost is not simply a plot device but the play’s most complex and unresolvable dramatic figure.
CHARACTER & FUNCTION AO1 AO2

What Kind of Thing Is the Ghost?

The Ghost of King Hamlet is the most interpretively contested figure in the play — and Act 1, Scene 1 is where that contestation begins. Horatio’s immediate response is both visceral (“It harrows me with fear and wonder”) and analytical: he attempts to classify the apparition even as he confronts it. The play does not resolve this question. Different characters offer different frameworks — demonic illusion, spirit from Purgatory, hallucination, genuine revenant — and the play allows each framework to coexist without adjudicating between them.

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The Ghost as Purgatorial Spirit
In Catholic theology, a spirit returning from Purgatory would seek prayers, masses, or the completion of unfinished earthly business. The Ghost’s later claim — “I am thy father’s spirit, / Doomed for a certain term to walk the night” — is consistent with Purgatorial theology. Greenblatt argues that the play exploits the Reformation’s destruction of Purgatory: the Ghost is a figure whose entire theological support system has been dismantled, leaving only the demand without the ritual framework to process it.
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The Ghost as Demonic Deception
Protestant theology’s answer to apparent ghosts was that they were demonic spirits assuming pleasing shapes to lead the living into sin. Hamlet himself articulates this possibility in Act 2: “The spirit that I have seen / May be a devil.” In Scene 1, Horatio’s questions — “If thou art privy to thy country’s fate… speak of it” — betray this anxiety: before trusting the Ghost, one must attempt to classify its origin and intent. The questions go unanswered.
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The Ghost as Collective Witness
The Ghost appears to three soldiers and a scholar — a detail Shakespeare includes precisely to forestall the most obvious rationalist explanation. It is not a private vision but a publicly witnessed event. Nevertheless, the Freudian tradition (Ernest Jones, Hamlet and Oedipus, 1949) tends to read the Ghost as a projection of guilt and desire — a reading that Act 1, Scene 1 technically challenges but does not fully prevent.
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The Ghost as Theatrical Convention Withheld
Within the revenge tragedy tradition, the ghost of a murdered king is a genre requirement — its function is to commission revenge and set the plot in motion. What makes Shakespeare’s Ghost distinctive is precisely that it does not perform this function in Scene 1. It appears, it is identified, and it departs without speaking. The delay introduces a gap between the convention and its fulfilment that is rich with meaning: even the revenge tragedy’s most basic machinery is withheld.
COMPARATIVE READINGS AO5
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Greenblatt — New Historicist
  • The Ghost embodies Reformation anxiety about what happens to the dead when Purgatory is abolished
  • Its demand is emotionally compelling but theologically unsupported — there is no doctrinal framework left to authorise action
  • Hamlet’s paralysis is partly a consequence of this doctrinal void: he cannot act because he cannot know the Ghost’s origin
  • This reading illuminates the theological dimension but may underweight the Ghost’s psychological and theatrical functions
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Jones — Psychoanalytic
  • The Ghost is a projection of Hamlet’s unconscious — an externalised form of his own guilty wishes and Oedipal structure
  • Its authority over Hamlet is the authority of the super-ego: the internalised father-figure demanding what the son both desires and fears
  • The Ghost’s silence before Horatio reinforces the idea that this message can only be delivered to the son
  • This reading struggles with the Ghost’s public, multiply-witnessed presence in Scene 1 — it is not a private vision
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Critical Caution: It is tempting to resolve the Ghost’s ambiguity by choosing one of these readings and committing to it. Resist this temptation. The play’s power lies precisely in its refusal to adjudicate. The strongest A Level answers acknowledge the multiple interpretive frameworks while arguing for one as most productive for understanding this scene specifically.
🎯 Module 04 — Exam Prompt
“The Ghost in Hamlet is deliberately and irreducibly ambiguous — and that ambiguity is the play’s central dramatic engine.” How far does Act 1, Scene 1 support this view?
This question rewards AO5 engagement. Bring Greenblatt’s theological reading and Jones’s psychoanalytic reading into dialogue. A distinguished answer would note that Scene 1 establishes ambiguity structurally — through the Ghost’s silence and movement — and argue that this ambiguity is not a flaw but a deliberate dramatic strategy that conditions everything that follows.
05
Module Five
Dramatic Structure & Stagecraft
How the scene is shaped as a theatrical experience — the double appearance, the cock-crow structure, staging choices, silence, and metrical disruption.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN AO2

The Double Appearance — Symmetry and Frustration

The scene is structured around two appearances of the Ghost, separated by Horatio’s expository speech about Denmark’s political situation. This doubling creates a specific structural rhythm: appearance, failed attempt at communication, departure; appearance, failed attempt at communication, departure. The repetition enacts the scene’s central frustration. Each time the Ghost comes, it seems about to speak; each time, it does not. What the structure communicates, before any language does, is the impossibility of getting a straight answer.

1
First Appearance — Shock and Witness
The first appearance establishes the fact of the Ghost and tests its reality against the sceptic’s expectations. Horatio, who declared “it will not appear,” is immediately confronted with visual proof. The stage direction specifies that the Ghost crosses the stage — it does not stand still to be interrogated but moves, purposefully, which implies intention and agency. It is not a passive apparition but an active presence.
2
The Interlude — Politics and Structural Delay
Between the two appearances, Shakespeare inserts Horatio’s account of Denmark’s political situation — the old Hamlet’s victory over Fortinbras, the current military preparations, and the parallel with Rome before Caesar’s assassination. This passage provides necessary exposition, contextualises the Ghost within a framework of political crisis, and delays the second appearance, building anticipation. The structural delay mirrors the play’s larger pattern of deferral.
3
Second Appearance — Attempted Detention and the Cock-Crow
The second appearance is more dynamic: Horatio actively attempts to speak to and detain the Ghost, asking three separate questions. When the cock crows, the Ghost departs, and Marcellus attempts to strike it — a moment simultaneously futile (you cannot harm a spirit) and humanly comprehensible (the instinct to act physically when speech fails). The cock-crow ending introduces dawn, invokes the Christian protective mythology of the rooster, and closes the scene on a note of enforced passivity.
4
The Shift to Dawn — Tonal Resolution
The final movement — Marcellus’s extended meditation on the cock’s crow and its protective power, followed by the decision to find Hamlet — represents a tonal shift. The language becomes quieter, more measured, almost liturgical: “It faded on the crowing of the cock.” This is not resolution but temporary respite. The scene closes on the partial safety of daylight and the promise of a future encounter with Hamlet — both of which will prove illusory.
METRE & VERSE AO2

Broken Rhythm and the Verse of Crisis

The scene is written predominantly in blank verse — unrhymed iambic pentameter — with notable disruptions that carry dramatic meaning. The moments of greatest stress produce lines that break from the pentameter pattern. It is worth examining Barnardo’s attempt to narrate the Ghost’s earlier appearance, where metrical disruption signals psychological disruption:

BARNARDO — “Last night of all…” (1.1.35–36) — Metre Under Pressure
Line 35
u
Last
S
night
u
of
S
all,
u
when
S
yon
u
same
S
star
u
that’s
S
west-
Line 36
u
ward
S
from
S
the
—
[break]
S
pole
—
[int.]

The short, broken line and metrical gap mark the moment where Barnardo is interrupted by the Ghost’s reappearance. The metre collapses precisely when the supernatural intrudes. Elizabethan audiences, trained to hear verse as structured and controlled speech, would register this metrical fracture as a sonic analogue of psychological disruption. The breakdown of the line’s regularity enacts the breakdown of the rational order it represents.

PERFORMANCE CRITICISM — STAGING THE GHOST
Productions have staged the Ghost in radically different ways: as a figure in full armour, as a bare presence in light, as a voice without a body, or — in some modern productions — as an absence that the other characters respond to while the audience sees nothing. Each staging choice constitutes an interpretation of the Ghost’s ontological status. The staging of Act 1, Scene 1 is thus one of the most philosophically loaded directorial decisions in the entire play.
🎯 Module 05 — Exam Prompt
Explore the ways Shakespeare uses dramatic structure and stagecraft in Act 1, Scene 1 to create a sense of unresolvable uncertainty.
AO2 is primary. Focus on the double appearance structure, the Ghost’s silence and movement, the cock-crow ending, and the metrical disruptions. A distinguished answer would argue that the scene’s structure formally enacts its thematic content: just as the Ghost appears and departs without communicating, the scene’s architecture moves towards revelation and then withdraws from it.
06
Module Six
Language, Imagery & the Rhetoric of Night
Close analysis of the scene’s most significant language choices — darkness, sickness, cold, and the vocabulary of the contested supernatural.
LANGUAGE ANALYSIS AO2

Opening in Interrogative — “Who’s there?”

The play’s first words are a question: “Who’s there?” The interrogative is the play’s structural mode. Hamlet is organised around questions that cannot be answered: Is the Ghost genuine? Is Claudius guilty? Should Hamlet act, and if so when and how? The opening question is not merely atmospheric — it is the play’s signature gesture in miniature. The reversal of the challenge (the arriving soldier challenging the stationed one) immediately suggests a world where normal protocols of recognition have broken down.

1
“Sick at Heart” — The Language of Physical Malaise
Francisco’s complaint that he is “sick at heart” — offered without explanation and never elaborated — is the play’s first instance of a pervasive disease imagery. “Sick” maps psychological distress onto the body; “at heart” locates it at the seat of emotion and, in early modern physiology, at the site of the soul. Francisco is not ill in any identifiable way: his sickness is the sickness of a world that is wrong without his being able to say how. This opening image, brief as it is, establishes the affective register of the entire play.
2
“It harrows me with fear and wonder” — The Double Response
Horatio’s description of his response — “fear and wonder” — is precisely calibrated. “Fear” is the visceral, physical response; “wonder” is the intellectual response of a mind confronted with something that exceeds its categories. The conjunction matters: this is not simply terror (which would diminish the Ghost to a source of mere fright) but the specific experience of confronting what exceeds comprehension. Horatio’s double response models for the audience how to receive the Ghost: with both the body and the mind.
3
The Julius Caesar Parallel — Classical Frame for Political Crisis
Horatio’s account of the omens preceding Caesar’s assassination — “the sheeted dead / Did squeak and gibber in the Roman streets” — deploys a classical frame to contextualise Denmark’s crisis. The effect is to elevate the local and specific into the universal and tragic, while simultaneously suggesting that what is happening in Elsinore has happened before and belongs to the recurring pattern of history’s violence. The imagery of “sheeted dead” — corpses in burial shrouds, risen — also directly parallels the Ghost.
4
“It faded on the crowing of the cock” — The Elegiac Close
The verb “faded” is worth close attention. The Ghost does not flee, retreat, or disappear — it fades. The word carries connotations of gradual loss, of something vivid becoming indistinct, like a memory or a dream. It is a gentle word for a terrifying event, and its gentleness is precisely what makes it so effective. The cock-crow passage that follows — Marcellus’s extended meditation on the rooster’s protective power — is the scene’s most lyrical writing, and its lyricism is part of the meaning: it offers a moment of peace that the rest of the play will systematically dismantle.
“But look, the morn in russet mantle clad
Walks o’er the dew of yon high eastward hill.”
Horatio, Act 1, Scene 1, lines 166–167

Dawn is personified — “the morn… walks” — and dressed in russet, a reddish-brown homespun cloth associated with rural simplicity rather than courtly richness. The image is almost pastoral in its quietness, and it stands in deliberate contrast to the military alertness and supernatural terror of everything preceding it. Horatio, the scholar, produces the scene’s most poetically accomplished lines at its close — suggesting that what the encounter with the Ghost has produced is not only fear but a sharpened attention to the world’s beauty. This is one of the scene’s most underanalysed moments.

BRADLEY — CHARACTER CRITICISM
A.C. Bradley’s reading of Act 1, Scene 1 focuses primarily on its atmospheric function — the scene exists to create the appropriate mood of “mysterious dread.” Bradley’s approach is illuminating on affect but less productive on the scene’s specific language choices and structural decisions, which a more textually attentive reading reveals to be doing considerable analytical work in their own right.
🎯 Module 06 — Exam Prompt
Analyse the significance of Shakespeare’s language choices in Act 1, Scene 1, paying particular attention to how imagery creates meaning beyond mere atmosphere.
AO2 is dominant. Resist writing about “atmosphere” in general terms — that scores C grade. Choose two or three specific language choices (“sick at heart,” “fear and wonder,” “faded”) and unpack each word’s connotations, its grammatical function, and its relationship to the play’s larger concerns. The strongest responses will connect language choices to the central argument about epistemological uncertainty.
07
Module Seven
Themes in the Scene
The major thematic concerns introduced in Act 1, Scene 1 — and how they prefigure the play’s central preoccupations.
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Knowledge and Uncertainty AO1 AO3
The play’s central epistemological crisis — the impossibility of knowing what the Ghost is, what it wants, and whether it can be trusted — is established in Scene 1. Every character who encounters the Ghost experiences the same oscillation between certainty and doubt. This theme will dominate the play: Hamlet’s “To be or not to be” is partly a question about epistemology; his famous hesitation is partly a product of radical uncertainty about the reliability of his knowledge.
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Death and What Follows AO1 AO3
The Ghost raises the question that Hamlet will return to obsessively: what happens to the dead? The Elizabethan theological controversy about Purgatory, demonic deception, and the afterlife is the play’s most sustained engagement with mortality. Scene 1 introduces this theme structurally — through the Ghost’s presence — before it is articulated as explicit philosophical inquiry in later soliloquies.
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Political Legitimacy and Succession AO3
Horatio’s exposition of the Fortinbras situation raises questions about legitimate political succession. Old Hamlet defeated old Fortinbras in single combat; now young Fortinbras threatens to reclaim by force what was lost by contract. The parallel with Claudius’s usurpation is implicit. Denmark’s political crisis operates on multiple levels simultaneously, and Scene 1 establishes the external threat before the internal one is revealed.
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Disorder and the Inverted World AO1
The scene’s opening — the reversed challenge, Francisco’s unexplained sickness, the cold — collectively images a world that is out of joint. The phrase “something is rotten in the state of Denmark” (spoken by Marcellus in Scene 4) articulates what Scene 1 establishes atmospherically: an order that has been violated, whose violation can be felt before it can be named.
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Time and Urgency AO2
The scene is structured by time: the midnight watch, the movement towards dawn, the cock-crow that enforces departure. This temporal framework establishes that the supernatural is bounded — the Ghost can only operate in darkness — and that knowledge has a deadline. The urgency of the closing lines is partly temporal: the night is ending, the Ghost is gone, and action must be taken before the next darkness arrives.
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Obligation and Duty AO1 AO3
The Ghost’s appearance creates an implicit obligation — but for whom, to do what, and on what authority? This theme of duty under conditions of uncertainty is the play’s moral core. In Scene 1, the decision to tell Hamlet creates a chain of obligation that the rest of the play will struggle to honour. The watch’s duty to “impart” their knowledge is a small-scale version of the larger duty the Ghost will impose on Hamlet.
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Thematic Coherence: These themes are not separate strands but deeply interconnected. Uncertainty about the Ghost’s nature is simultaneously a theological question, a political question, and a psychological question. The best A Level essays trace the connections between themes — showing, for example, how the theme of epistemological uncertainty generates both the political paralysis and the personal anguish that follow.
🎯 Module 07 — Exam Prompt
How does Act 1, Scene 1 establish the major thematic concerns of Hamlet?
Prioritise AO1 and AO3. Select two or three themes and trace them specifically through this scene. A distinguished answer would show how the themes are not merely present but structurally enacted: uncertainty is not just talked about but performed by the scene’s repeated pattern of approach and withdrawal.
08
Module Eight
Critical Perspectives
Three major critical schools and how each reads Act 1, Scene 1 — with analytical tools for integrating critical voices into your own argument.
CRITICAL SCHOOLS AO5
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New Historicism — Greenblatt
  • Reading of Scene 1: The Ghost embodies the trauma of Reformation England’s destruction of Purgatory — an entity whose theological support system has been abolished, leaving demand without ritual framework
  • Key claim: The scene’s anxiety is not primarily psychological but doctrinal — the characters cannot respond properly because they lack a coherent theology to tell them what the Ghost is
  • What this illuminates: Why Horatio’s three questions are so specific — these are the standard categories for identifying Purgatorial spirits, applied here to no effect
  • What it may miss: The scene’s theatrical and psychological dimensions, and the fact that the play’s uncertainty resonates with audiences for whom Reformation theology is entirely remote
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Psychoanalytic — Jones / Freudian
  • Reading of Scene 1: The Ghost’s refusal to speak to anyone but Hamlet represents a psychological demand that can only be addressed by the son — an externalisation of the Oedipal guilt structure
  • Key claim: The scene stages the first movement of the play’s unconscious drama — the return of the repressed father, whose authority over the son is precisely its inarticulacy
  • What this illuminates: Why the Ghost cannot speak to Horatio, a rational surrogate — the message is emotional, not intellectual, and belongs to the son’s psyche
  • What it may miss: The Ghost is publicly witnessed by multiple people — a detail that challenges purely internalist readings of Scene 1 specifically
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Performance / Theatrical Criticism
  • Reading of Scene 1: The scene’s primary function is to establish the theatrical contract — the audience must agree to believe in the Ghost, in the darkness, and in the stakes before the play can proceed
  • Key claim: How a production stages Act 1, Scene 1 commits it to a specific interpretation of the Ghost’s ontological status, which the rest of the production must honour
  • What this illuminates: The scene’s metatheaterical dimension — it is, among other things, a meditation on what theatre asks its audience to accept as real
  • What it may miss: The richness of the scene’s textual and contextual dimensions, which a purely performance-focused reading may reduce to staging choices
USING CRITICS IN YOUR ESSAYS AO5

Phrasing for Integrating Critical Voices

INTRODUCING A CRITICAL VIEW
Stephen Greenblatt argues that the Ghost’s appearance enacts the Reformation’s destruction of a coherent theology of the dead — a reading that illuminates Horatio’s specific, almost formulaic questions as failed attempts to apply an obsolete doctrinal framework to an entity that has survived the abolition of the doctrine that explained it.
CHALLENGING A CRITICAL VIEW
While Greenblatt’s theological reading is persuasive as a contextual frame, it risks reducing the scene’s power to a historical accident. The scene’s uncertainty feels less like the product of a specific doctrinal moment than like a permanent condition — which may be why it continues to unsettle audiences for whom Reformation theology is entirely remote.
SYNTHESISING TWO READINGS
Both Greenblatt’s New Historicist reading and the Freudian tradition of Ernest Jones locate the scene’s anxiety in a structure of knowledge that has been disrupted — doctrinal in one case, psychological in the other. What unites them is their shared emphasis on the Ghost as a figure that demands a response for which no adequate framework exists: an entity that arrives before the interpretive resources needed to receive it are in place.
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Exam Technique — Integrating Critics Without Losing Your Argument: The most common error in AO5 work is to cite a critic and then move on, as if the citation itself constitutes analysis. It does not. After naming a critic and their position, you must always do one of three things: extend the reading by applying it to a specific textual moment; challenge it by identifying what it fails to account for; or synthesise it with another reading to produce a more nuanced position. The critic’s view is evidence for your argument — not a substitute for it.
🎯 Module 08 — Exam Prompt
“Act 1, Scene 1 presents the Ghost as primarily a theological problem rather than a dramatic one.” How far do you agree, taking into account different critical perspectives?
Designed for AO5. Use Greenblatt to support the theological reading, performance criticism to argue for the theatrical dimension, and the psychoanalytic tradition for the psychological. A distinguished answer would synthesise these readings rather than listing them — arguing that the Ghost is a theological problem precisely because it is a theatrical one: the stage’s ambiguity mirrors the doctrine’s ambiguity.
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Module Nine
Genre, Form & Intertexts
Where Act 1, Scene 1 sits within the revenge tragedy tradition, how it departs from generic expectation, and which source texts and later works illuminate its choices.
REVENGE TRAGEDY TRADITION AO3

The Genre and Its Expectations

The revenge tragedy as a popular Elizabethan genre was shaped by two main sources: the Latin tragedies of Seneca (first-century Roman playwright, widely read and imitated in Elizabethan England) and the English tradition established most influentially by Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy (c.1587). The genre has a recognisable shape: a murder is committed by a powerful figure; a ghost appears to demand revenge; a revenger is commissioned; delay and complication follow; catastrophic violence concludes the play.

Act 1, Scene 1 invokes this shape and immediately complicates it. The Ghost appears — but does not speak its demand. The avenger is not present. The scene ends with a decision to find the protagonist rather than with a revenge commission. This is not the genre failing to perform its conventions but Shakespeare deliberately withholding them, producing in the audience both the satisfaction of recognition and the unease of deferral.

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Seneca — The Classical Root
Senecan tragedy, particularly Thyestes and Agamemnon, established the ghost as a prologue figure who frames the catastrophe before it begins. In Seneca, the ghost typically speaks directly to the audience, announces its grievance, and sets the tone of doom. Shakespeare’s Ghost in Scene 1 is conspicuously silent in this mode — it refuses the Senecan role of prologue-speaker and becomes instead a problem to be solved rather than a frame to be accepted.
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Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy
Kyd’s play features the Ghost of Andrea, who watches the action from outside with the allegorical figure of Revenge. The ghost is a witness rather than a participant. Shakespeare’s Ghost is wholly different: it is the play’s most active figure, moving across the stage, demanding attention, refusing to be contained by the genre’s conventions. Where Kyd’s ghost is a narrative frame, Shakespeare’s is an unsolved problem.
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The Sources — Belleforest and Saxo
Shakespeare’s primary source was François de Belleforest’s Histoires Tragiques (1570), itself based on the twelfth-century Historia Danica of Saxo Grammaticus. In these sources, there is no ghost — the murder is committed openly, and Hamlet’s madness is a deliberate strategy. Shakespeare’s invention of the Ghost is thus the play’s most fundamental departure from its sources, transforming a revenge story into a philosophical inquiry about knowledge and obligation.
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Stoppard — Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead
Stoppard’s 1966 play reimagines Hamlet from the perspective of its most peripheral characters, beginning in a world where the events of Act 1 are entirely opaque. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern have been summoned without being told why. Stoppard’s play is partly an extended meditation on the epistemological position Scene 1 establishes — a world full of urgent activity whose meaning cannot be apprehended from the outside.
KEY GENERIC DEPARTURE
The most analytically productive question to ask about genre in Act 1, Scene 1 is not “how does this scene fulfil revenge tragedy conventions?” but “what does Shakespeare withhold, and what does that withholding mean?” The Ghost’s silence is the scene’s central generic departure — and it transforms the revenge tragedy’s machinery from something that drives action into something that produces paralysis.
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AO3 Argument: Shakespeare’s invention of the Ghost — and his decision to make its first appearance silent — is the play’s most fundamental transformation of its source material. By giving Hamlet a secret that depends on supernatural testimony, Shakespeare makes every subsequent action contingent on a prior epistemological problem: can the Ghost be trusted? This question does not exist in Belleforest. Shakespeare creates it, and it is the engine of the entire play.
🎯 Module 09 — Exam Prompt
How does Shakespeare use and subvert the conventions of the revenge tragedy genre in Act 1, Scene 1 of Hamlet?
Primarily AO3 with AO2. Name specific conventions (the commissioning ghost, the prologue, the delayed revenge) and show precisely how Shakespeare revises them. A distinguished answer would use at least one named intertext — Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy, Senecan tragedy, or Belleforest — and argue that Shakespeare’s generic revisions are not decorative but constitutive: they are the play’s argument, not just its background.
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Module Ten
Links Across the Play & Beyond
How the motifs, arguments, and structures of Act 1, Scene 1 echo, develop, and are transformed across the full arc of Hamlet.
IMAGE CLUSTERS AND MOTIFS AO1 AO3
Act 1, Scene 1
Disease — “Sick at Heart”
Francisco’s unexplained sickness introduces the play’s dominant disease imagery. “Sick” applied to an emotional state — “sick at heart” — establishes the pattern of the whole play: Denmark’s illness is not medical but moral and political. This is the seed of the imagery that will culminate in Hamlet’s “the time is out of joint” and Marcellus’s “something is rotten in the state of Denmark.”
Act 2, Scene 2
Disease — “Denmark’s a prison”
Hamlet’s description of Denmark as a prison — and his perception of the world as “a foul and pestilent congregation of vapours” — develops Scene 1’s sickness imagery into full-scale political and existential alienation. The disease has moved from the watch’s unnamed malaise to a comprehensive diagnosis of the kingdom and, by extension, the world itself.
Act 3, Scene 4
Ghost — Return and Diminishing Visibility
The Ghost’s second major appearance — in Gertrude’s closet — directly echoes Scene 1 in its structural function: it appears, creates fear and wonder, and departs without resolving the central uncertainty. But here it is invisible to Gertrude. What was publicly witnessed in Scene 1 becomes, by Act 3, privately hallucinated (or so Gertrude implies). The Ghost’s diminishing visibility traces a movement towards inwardness that the play as a whole performs.
Act 5, Scene 1
Death — The Graveyard and What Follows
The gravedigger scene completes the arc initiated by Scene 1’s meditation on death and what follows. Hamlet’s contemplation of Yorick’s skull is the philosophical endpoint of the Ghost’s appearance: if Scene 1 raises the question of what the dead might want, Act 5, Scene 1 offers a bleaker answer — the dead want nothing; they are matter. The Ghost’s claim to ongoing consciousness and obligation appears, from the graveyard’s perspective, a tragic delusion or a theological mystery that no philosophy can resolve.
Act 5, Scene 2
Central Argument — Final Position
The play’s closing catastrophe does not resolve the epistemological crisis established in Scene 1 — it intensifies it. Hamlet dies without knowing for certain whether the Ghost was honest, whether his actions were justified, or whether justice has been served. Horatio survives to “tell the story” — but the story he will tell is precisely the story Scene 1 introduced: a series of events whose causes and meanings remain radically uncertain.
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Return to Central Argument: The epistemological crisis established in Scene 1 is not resolved anywhere in the play. Hamlet’s final acceptance (“The readiness is all”) is not a resolution of the uncertainty but an accommodation to it: the decision to act without certainty, because certainty is not available. Scene 1 plants this impossibility; Act 5 inherits it.
🎯 Module 10 — Exam Prompt
How do the concerns introduced in Act 1, Scene 1 shape the play as a whole? Explore the connections between this scene and at least two other significant moments in Hamlet.
Prioritise AO1 and AO3. Select motifs (disease, the Ghost, uncertainty) and trace them across the play with specific textual reference. A distinguished answer would not just list connections but argue for a through-line: showing how Scene 1’s epistemological crisis generates, and cannot be escaped by, the play’s subsequent action.
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Module Eleven
Writing a Top-Grade Response
Essay plan, paragraph template, weak versus strong mini-essay comparison, and final exam challenge.
ESSAY PLAN AO1 AO2 AO3 AO5

Question: “Act 1, Scene 1 is fundamentally a scene about not knowing.” Explore the significance of this view.

Introduction AO1 AO5
Advance the central argument immediately: Scene 1 does not merely create an atmosphere of mystery but enacts a specific epistemological crisis — the impossibility of knowing the Ghost’s origin, nature, and authority.
Frame with a brief critical reference: Greenblatt’s argument that the scene dramatises the Reformation’s destruction of a coherent theology of the dead, contextualising your argument as both textual and historical.
Signal the essay’s method: you will examine how this crisis of knowing is enacted structurally (through the Ghost’s silence and double appearance), linguistically (the interrogative mode, the vocabulary of uncertainty), and generically (through the deliberate withholding of the revenge tragedy’s commissioning scene).
Paragraph 1 — Structure and Epistemological Crisis AO2
Focus on the double appearance structure: two appearances, two failures of communication, two departures without revelation.
Key quotation: Horatio’s three unanswered questions — “If thou art privy to thy country’s fate… speak of it” — as staging systematic interrogative failure.
Analytical move: argue that the structure formally enacts the central argument — the scene is built around the repeated experience of approaching knowledge and being denied it.
Contextual point: the Elizabethan convention that spirits must speak when addressed — Horatio’s questions conform to this convention, and the Ghost’s silence violates it, compounding the uncertainty.
Paragraph 2 — Language and the Rhetoric of Uncertainty AO2 AO3
Focus on the scene’s interrogative grammar: from the play’s first words (“Who’s there?”) through Horatio’s failed questions to the closing uncertainty about what Hamlet will make of what the watch has seen.
Key quotation: “It harrows me with fear and wonder” — unpack “wonder” as the specific cognitive state of confronting what exceeds one’s categories, distinct from mere terror.
Analytical move: argue that the language is built around the vocabulary of the threshold — between knowing and not knowing, between the living and the dead.
Alternative reading (New Historicist): acknowledge that Greenblatt’s reading emphasises the historically contingent form of the uncertainty, then extend this by noting that Shakespeare transforms a historical crisis into a permanent dramatic condition.
Conclusion AO1 AO5
Widen the argument’s implications: Scene 1’s epistemological crisis is not resolved in Act 5 but accommodated — “The readiness is all” is Hamlet’s acceptance of uncertainty, not its defeat.
Return to the critical framework: Greenblatt’s reading illuminates the historical dimension, but the scene’s power transcends its moment — it stages a permanent human condition.
Close with a claim about the play’s form: Shakespeare chooses to open not with a king, a court, or a villain, but with soldiers who don’t know what they’ve seen. This is a deliberate formal statement: Hamlet begins in uncertainty and never escapes it.
PARAGRAPH TEMPLATE AO1 AO2
Essay Paragraph Template — A Level Hamlet
// Thesis-led topic sentence — name the argument, not just the topic In this passage, Shakespeare stages the crisis of knowing as a structural as well as a linguistic problem… // Close language analysis — specific word, not just technique The verb “harrows” enacts a specific quality of epistemological disturbance because… // Critical voice — integrate, don’t just cite Greenblatt argues that the Ghost’s unclassifiability is historically produced — a reading that illuminates Horatio’s questions as failed applications of an obsolete doctrinal framework… // Alternative interpretation — signal it explicitly A more sceptical reading, however, might suggest that Shakespeare transforms a historically contingent crisis into a permanent dramatic condition — one that resonates with audiences for whom Reformation theology is entirely remote… // Contextual insight — use context to generate analysis, not decorate it This resonates with the theological controversy of the 1590s over the status of the dead — a controversy alive enough for Shakespeare to exploit and open enough for him to leave permanently unresolved…
MINI-ESSAY COMPARISON AO1 AO2 AO3 AO5

Question: How does Shakespeare create a sense of uncertainty in Act 1, Scene 1?

Mid-Grade Response
Grade C/B
Introduction
In Act 1, Scene 1 of Hamlet, Shakespeare creates a sense of uncertainty in many ways. The scene is set at night on the battlements of Elsinore castle, which creates a mysterious atmosphere. The characters are soldiers on a night watch and they are frightened because they have seen a ghost. This essay will explore how Shakespeare uses language and structure to create uncertainty.
Body Paragraph
Shakespeare uses the Ghost to create uncertainty. The Ghost appears twice but does not speak to the soldiers, which makes them and the audience uncertain about what it wants. Horatio says he is filled with “fear and wonder” when he sees the Ghost. This shows that the Ghost is frightening and mysterious. Shakespeare also uses the setting of night-time to add to the atmosphere of uncertainty, because night is traditionally associated with danger and the supernatural. The fact that the Ghost is described as looking like the dead King suggests there is something wrong in Denmark.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Shakespeare creates uncertainty in Act 1, Scene 1 through the Ghost, the night-time setting, and the soldiers’ reactions. This sets up the rest of the play in which Hamlet has to deal with the uncertainty caused by the Ghost’s appearance.
  • The introduction identifies the topic (uncertainty) but makes no arguable claim — it describes what the essay will do rather than advancing a thesis.
  • “Creates a mysterious atmosphere” is GCSE-register phrasing that substitutes a general impression for specific analysis. What kind of uncertainty? Arising from which specific dramatic choices?
  • “Fear and wonder” is quoted but not unpacked — “wonder” is a philosophically specific word distinguishing cognitive disturbance from mere fright, and this distinction is entirely missed.
  • Night-time as “traditionally associated with danger” is generic contextual padding, not analytical insight. It does not explain what Shakespeare does with the setting in this scene specifically.
  • No named critic or critical framework is introduced anywhere in the response.
  • The conclusion restates the introduction rather than extending the argument — it does not widen the implications or return to a central claim with any greater precision.
Distinguished Response
Grade A/A*
Introduction
Act 1, Scene 1 does not merely suggest uncertainty — it performs it. From the play’s opening interrogative (“Who’s there?”) to the Ghost’s twice-repeated appearance and twice-repeated silence, Shakespeare constructs a scene whose structure formally enacts its meaning: we are in a world where the most urgent questions cannot be answered. Stephen Greenblatt has argued that this epistemological crisis has a specific historical dimension — the Reformation’s destruction of Purgatory has dismantled the theological framework through which a ghost could be classified and responded to — but the scene’s power extends beyond this historical moment into a permanent condition of dramatic uncertainty that the rest of the play cannot escape.
Body Paragraph 1
The scene’s structure is itself an argument. The double appearance of the Ghost — each time ending in departure without communication — creates a formal rhythm of approach and withdrawal that mirrors the play’s larger pattern of deferred revelation. Horatio’s three unanswered questions (“If thou art privy to thy country’s fate… speak of it”) are not simply atmospheric: they conform to the Elizabethan convention that spirits must speak when properly addressed, and the Ghost’s silence therefore constitutes a violation of the normal protocol for supernatural encounter. The verb Shakespeare selects for Horatio’s response — “It harrows me with fear and wonder” — is precisely calibrated: “fear” is the visceral physical response, while “wonder” names the specific cognitive state of a mind confronted with what exceeds its categories. The conjunction of these two responses models for the audience how to receive the Ghost: not simply as a source of terror but as an object of genuine epistemological disturbance.
Body Paragraph 2
A psychoanalytic reading, drawing on Ernest Jones’s Hamlet and Oedipus, might argue that the Ghost’s refusal to speak to anyone other than Hamlet suggests that the uncertainty is not epistemological but psychological — the Ghost represents a demand that can only be articulated to the son, because it belongs to the son’s unconscious rather than to the external world. This reading is illuminating on why Horatio, despite being a scholar and a friend, cannot access the Ghost’s meaning. The scene does, however, challenge any purely internalist account: the Ghost is publicly witnessed by three soldiers as well as Horatio, a detail Shakespeare includes precisely to forestall the hallucination reading. What Scene 1 establishes is not a private psychological disturbance but a collective, witnessed uncertainty — a crisis that belongs to Denmark, not only to Hamlet, and that no individual framework, rational or supernatural, can resolve.
Conclusion
Act 1, Scene 1’s uncertainty is not incidental but constitutional. Shakespeare chooses to open his play not with a king, a court, or a statement of theme, but with soldiers who do not know what they have seen and a scholar who cannot explain it. The formal decision to begin in uncertainty — and to end the scene not with revelation but with the decision to defer to Hamlet — establishes a pattern that the play never breaks. Hamlet’s eventual accommodation of uncertainty (“The readiness is all”) is not a resolution of Scene 1’s crisis but an inheritance of it: the play’s final wisdom is that the uncertainty introduced in its first moments cannot be overcome, only endured.
  • The introduction advances a specific, arguable thesis immediately (“performs” uncertainty rather than “suggests” it) and frames it within a named critical reading (Greenblatt) while signalling that the essay will extend beyond that reading.
  • The structural analysis (double appearance as “formal rhythm”) connects form to meaning rather than simply identifying a technique — it argues that the structure is the argument.
  • “Harrows” and “wonder” are analysed at word level, with attention to “wonder” as a cognitive rather than merely emotional state — this is genuine close reading, not technique-spotting.
  • The second paragraph introduces a named critical view (Jones), summarises it accurately, applies it to a specific textual feature (the Ghost’s silence before Horatio), and then challenges it using textual evidence (the Ghost’s public, witnessed presence in Scene 1).
  • The alternative reading is explicitly signalled and given real substance — it is not a token concession but a genuinely argued counter-position that is then answered.
  • The conclusion widens the argument to the play as a whole (“The readiness is all”) and returns to the scene’s formal opening choice — ending with a claim about the play’s structural philosophy rather than merely restating the thesis.
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What Makes the Difference: The gap between these two responses is not primarily one of knowledge — both students know the scene. The difference lies in the analytical moves each makes. The weak response identifies and describes; the strong response argues, questions, and connects. Every sentence in the strong response is doing analytical work. Every sentence in the weak response is moving towards analysis but stopping just before it arrives.
🏆 Final Essay Challenge — 45 Minutes
“The opening of Hamlet suggests that the play will be less concerned with what happens than with the impossibility of knowing what has happened.” Starting with Act 1, Scene 1, explore how far you agree with this view. [AQA / Edexcel open essay format]
Allocate your time: Planning (5 min) · Introduction (5 min) · Three body paragraphs (8 min each) · Conclusion (5 min).

Self-assessment prompts: Have you advanced a specific thesis in your introduction, or only identified a theme? Does each body paragraph make an analytical argument, or does it describe and illustrate? Have you named at least one critic and either extended or challenged their reading? Have you introduced at least one alternative interpretation? Does your conclusion widen the argument’s implications rather than restating the introduction? If you can answer “yes” to all five, you are writing at Grade A standard.
Hamlet A Level Series
This guide is part of a complete scene-by-scene series for A Level English Literature. Each module is designed to develop the analytical precision, critical awareness, and textual confidence that distinguish the highest grade responses.
Part of the Hamlet A Level Complete Series · Act 1, Scene 1

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